Overview

The Information Age and the associated information revolution promise the prospect of ubiquitous battlefield networks through which all battlefield entities are seamlessly integrated so that real-time data can be shared, as and when required. To modern commanders the allure of this promise is irresistible. It has been several hundred years since a commander has had the ability from a convenient hilltop to survey personally the disposition of all friendly and adversary forces. Now, in the Information Age, the modern commander, with senses enhanced by electronic sensors and modern communications systems, can stand on an electronic hilltop and once again ‘see’ whatever portion of the battlefield is desired at whatever detail is appropriate.

This book analyses the tactical communications systems required to support modern land commanders. Chapter 1 describes the operational environment of the digitized battlefield and examines the process of command and control that is the core business of the tactical commander. Chapter 2 provides a brief overview of the technologies that are pertinent to the provision of tactical communications systems. Chapter 3 provides an overview of army organizational structures, aiming to provide a basic understanding of the size and disposition of army units, army command structures, tactical communications structures, and the role of support and services.

Readers familiar with communications technologies and army organizational structures may wish to skip to Chapter 4, which begins by briefly examining the early history of military communications and then focuses on the development of the two major battlefield communications subsystems that are deployed by all modern armies.

Chapter 5 develops an architectural framework to define the tactical communications system required to support modern land commanders. It begins by outlining key design drivers that shape the architecture of a tactical communications system. Options for a mobile tactical communications system are then examined and a suitable framework is developed within which architectural issues can subsequently be considered.

Chapters 6 to 10 then address the major subsystems of the tactical communications architecture. Each subsystem is considered in terms of the fundamental design drivers that direct the provision of tactical communications. Architectural options are analyzed and a preferred option is selected. Consideration is also given to the options available for the migration of legacy subsystems. Finally, Chapter 11 addresses the critical issue of interfaces.

Preface

Early commanders were in intimate contact with their troops. Battlefields were small (tiny in comparison with those of today) and commanders could direct their troops by using their voice or their physical presence to influence the outcome of the battle. As commanders embarked on more adventurous campaigns, the size of their forces prevented close-quarter command and commanders had to remove themselves somewhat from the battlefield so that they could obtain a larger view than was possible while standing amongst the troops. Effective command, therefore, required commanders to occupy a convenient hilltop from which to oversee own-force and adversary dispositions. While this new position increased situational awareness, it also increased the distance between the commander and subordinates, which increased the time to convey orders and created a delay in their transmission that had to be accommodated for by commanders in their plans.

The increased distance also required commanders to develop communications systems to assist in passing orders. Early systems were courier-based making use of messengers to carry orders between levels of command. For more rapid transmission of simple orders, some form of visual or acoustic signalling was normally employed. However, as fronts became wider, weapons became more sophisticated, military administration developed and logistics tails became longer, the battlefield was no longer under the view of a single commander and better communications were required. Effective command and control required that headquarters had to be informed instantly of events on distant battlefields—more swiftly than was possible by courier. With the invention of electrical telegraphy and telephony, battlefield communications systems quickly became electronic, which restored timely contact between distant commanders. This contact was only possible by line, however, and it was not until the invention of the radio that commanders were able to conduct limited command and control while on the move.

Although the introduction of electronic communications systems has increased the ability of commanders to communicate over large distances in real-time, there are still quite considerable hurdles to be overcome. Commanders are often seen as having had mobility since the introduction of the radio during World War I, yet large-scale ventures such as brigade attacks were still being undertaken using runners as late as the end of World War II. Most modern armies still struggle to provide timely contact between commanders, particularly when on the move. While all armies strive to achieve real-time situational awareness across the levels of command, the reality is still far from ideal with communications at the lower levels depending on single-channel, shared-access nets that are grossly inadequate to provide the bandwidths required.

The Information Age and the associated information revolution promise to change all that. Purveyors of Information-Age technologies offer the prospect of ubiquitous battlefield networks through which all battlefield entities are seamlessly integrated so that real-time data can be shared, as and when required. To modern commanders the allure of this promise is irresistible. It has been several hundred years since a commander has had the ability from a convenient hilltop to survey personally the disposition of all friendly and adversary forces. Now, in the Information Age, the modern commander, with senses enhanced by electronic sensors and modern communications systems, can stand on an electronic hilltop and once again ‘see’ whatever portion of the battlefield is desired at whatever detail is appropriate.

This book analyses the tactical communications systems required to support modern land commanders. (The vulnerability of such systems is addressed in “Tactical Electronic Warfare”, also published by Argos Press) Here, we develop an architecture to define the tactical communications system required to support future land warfare. The architecture establishes a flexible environment that will support development and acquisition of future battlespace communications systems to support land operations, as well as the modification and enhancement of existing systems to migrate to the target architecture. The architecture is applicable to all modern armies, albeit to varying degrees.

Chapter 1 describes the operational environment of the digitized battlefield and examines the process of command and control that is the core business of the tactical commander. The concept of network-centric warfare is discussed as an example of a doctrine that is emerging to harness the power of the information revolution for application to land warfare.

Chapter 2 provides a brief overview of the technologies that are pertinent to the provision of tactical communications systems. Space restrictions constrain the scope of the descriptions, but the intent is to provide readers with sufficient background to follow the discussion in subsequent chapters.

Chapter 3 provides an overview of army organizational structures, aiming to provide a basic understanding of the size and disposition of army units, army command structures, tactical communications structures, and the role of support and services. The basic army structure discussed in this chapter applies to most modern armies. The coverage is general; we do not discuss details of any particular army. Many characteristics of the communications system are determined by the structure they support. It is therefore useful to examine the general structure of land forces as a precursor to analyzing the communications systems that support them. Since we are interested in tactical communications systems, we focus on the structure of land forces at the tactical level—that is, at divisional level and below.

Readers familiar with communications technologies and army organizational structures may wish to skip to Chapter 4, which begins by briefly examining the early history of military communications and then focuses on the development of the two major battlefield communications subsystems that are deployed by all modern armies. From this background, a number of verities of tactical battlefield communications are discussed to provide a detailed understanding that can serve as a basis for subsequent analysis of the communications support that can be provided to modern battlefield commanders.

Current tactical communications systems have evolved to meet users’ needs as the conduct of warfare has changed, particularly over the last several hundred years. However, if land warfare is to be revolutionized by Information-Age technologies, the tactical communications architecture must become an integral part of a force’s ability to prosecute war. This critical interdependency between communications and command and control requires a reconsideration of the architecture of tactical communications systems. Chapter 5 develops an architectural framework to define the tactical communications system. It begins by outlining key design drivers that shape the architecture of a tactical communications system. Options for a mobile tactical communications system are then examined and a suitable framework is developed within which architectural issues can subsequently be considered.

Chapters 6 to 10 then address the major subsystems of the tactical communications architecture. Each subsystem is considered in terms of the fundamental design drivers that direct the provision of tactical communications. Architectural options are analyzed and a preferred option is selected. Consideration is also given to the options available for the migration of legacy subsystems. Finally, Chapter 11 addresses the critical issue of interfaces. Because there are differing requirements for mobility and capacity, it is not feasible with current or foreseeable technology to provide the tactical communications system as a physically homogeneous network. It is essential, nonetheless, to provide a system that forms a single logical network to facilitate the movement of data throughout the battlespace. This is in line with current trends in commercial networking technology. The interfaces between the different parts of the tactical communications system and between it and other systems play an important part in this integration.

We would like to acknowledge the contribution of Bill Blair, Trevor Mahoney, and Dave Rose during early stages of this work.

Table of contents

CONTENTS
1	THE NEED FOR AN ARCHITECTURE	1
1.1	Introduction	1
1.2	The Operational Environment	2
1.3	Command and Control	4
1.4	An Increased Vulnerability	6
1.5	Tactical Communications for the Digitized Battlefield	7
1.6	The Need for an Architecture	9
2	AN INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY	15
2.1	Introduction	15
2.2	Communications Model	15
2.3	Source / Sink	16
2.4	Source Coding	26
2.5	Encryption	28
2.6	Channel Coding	29
2.7	Modulation	31
2.8	Multiplexing	39
2.9	Frequency Spreading	40
2.1	Multiple Access	43
2.11	Transmitters	45
2.12	Receivers	46
2.13	Transmission Lines	47
2.14	Antennas	50
2.15	Propagation	53
2.16	Switching	60
2.17	Networking and Internetworking	62
2.18	Types of Systems	70
3	INTRODUCTION TO LAND FORCE STRUCTURES	81
3.1	Introduction	81
3.2	Spectrum of Military Operations	82
3.3	Army Structure	83
3.4	Joint Forces	95
3.5	Dispersed Forces	96
3.6	Characteristic Distances for Communications	97
3.7	Summary	98
4	DEVELOPMENT OF TACTICAL COMMUNICATIONS	101
4.1	Introduction	101
4.2	History of Battlefield Communications	101
4.3	Combat Net Radio	107
4.4	Trunk Communications	111
4.5	Principles of Military Communications	131
4.6	Summary	134
5	AN ARCHITECTURE FOR THE TACTICAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM	137
5.1	Introduction	137
5.2	Design Drivers	137
5.3	Options for a Mobile Tactical Communications System	149
5.4	An Architectural Framework	160
5.5	Supported Systems	164
5.6	Overlaid Communications Systems	168
5.7	Summary	170
6	TACTICAL TRUNK SUBSYSTEM	173
6.1	Introduction	173
6.2	Key Architectural Drivers	174
6.3	Architectural Overview	180
6.4	Types of Bearers	182
6.5	Nodal Topology	185
6.6	Switching Node Composition	189
6.7	Mobile Access for Trunk Network Subscribers	195
6.8	Interfaces to the Tactical Trunk Subsystem	198
6.9	Summary	199
7	COMBAT RADIO SUBSYSTEM	201
7.1	Introduction	201
7.2	Key Architectural Drivers	202
7.3	Multiple Access	205
7.4	Candidate Solutions	209
7.5	Migration of Analogue CNR Systems	229
7.6	Conclusions and Recommendations	231
8	SOLDIER COMBAT SUBSYSTEM	235
8.1	Introduction	235
8.2	Key Architectural Drivers	239
8.3	Frequency Band of Operation	241
8.4	Multiple Access	241
8.5	Possible Solutions	242
8.6	Conclusion	252
9	TACTICAL DATA DISTRIBUTION SUBSYSTEM	253
9.1	Introduction	253
9.2	Key Architectural Drivers	255
9.3	Multiple Access	257
9.4	Possible Solutions	260
9.5	Preferred Solution	277
9.6	Conclusion	278
10	TACTICAL AIRBORNE SUBSYSTEM	281
10.1	Introduction	281
10.2	Advantages of an Airborne Communications Platform	282
10.3	Platform Height	283
10.4	Payload requirements	284
10.5	Some Limitations	290
10.6	Payload Architecture	293
10.7	Potential Platforms	295
10.8	Costs	302
10.9	Conclusions	303
11	TACTICAL NETWORK INTERFACES	305
11.1	Introduction	305
11.2	Basic Requirements	306
11.3	User Terminals	307
11.4	The Local Subsystem	309
11.5	Internal Interfaces	313
11.6	External Interfaces	317
11.7	Conclusion	325
	INDEX	327

Sample Chapter

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