Overview

Almost as soon as military radio systems began to make use of the electromagnetic spectrum at the beginning of the twentieth century, means have been sought to exploit the transmissions of an adversary, or even to prevent an adversary from using the spectrum. These means are collectively known as electronic warfare (EW): communications EW, and non-communications EW, based on whether the target is an adversary communications system or some other user of the electromagnetic spectrum.

This book covers both communications EW and non-communications EW. Because of the significant differences in the two areas, each is covered in its own part. Within each part, both target systems and EW are covered, following the basic three-way subdivision of EW into electronic support, electronic attack, and electronic protection.

The first part of the book deals with communications EW. Chapter 1 describes the operational environment and Chapter 2 discusses the targets of tactical communications electronic warfare—the communications systems that underpin the ability of a tactical commander to command and control. Chapter 3 concentrates on electronic protection, which comprises those actions taken to protect friendly equipment from any adverse electromagnetic effects. In Chapter 4 we describe electronic support, which is the component of electronic warfare that is involved with the identification of sources of intentional and unintentional radiation of electromagnetic energy by an adversary. Electronic attack is the focus of Chapter 5, which describes the issues associated with the use of electromagnetic energy to attack adversary equipment with the intent of degrading, neutralizing, or destroying adversary combat capability. Chapter 6 provides a description of the organisation of land EW units and the planning processes required for the deployment of electronic warfare capabilities on the battlefield.

The second part of this book deals with non-communications EW. Chapter 7 builds on the framework given in Chapter 1 to introduce the threats, environments, and systems commonly seen in non-communications EW. Chapter 8 then introduces radar fundamentals. Chapter 9 describes non-communications electronic support, including system performance measures, antennas, receivers, direction finding, and support issues. In Chapter 10 we address electronic attack against radars, including decoys and chaff, power calculations, and noise and deception jamming. Countermeasures to infrared homing missiles are the subject of Chapter 11. Warning systems to detect inbound missiles and laser energy are the focus of Chapter 12.

This tactical electronic warfare book is used as a text for a number of professional education and university courses, as well as for a number of in-house courses. In particular, it is complimentary to attendees on the edVirtus Tactical Electronic Warfare training courses delivered by the authors Dr Craig Benson and Dr Mike Ryan.

Preface

Almost as soon as military radio systems began to make use of the electromagnetic spectrum at the beginning of the twentieth century, means have been sought to exploit the transmissions of an adversary, or even to prevent an adversary from using the spectrum. These means are collectively known as electronic warfare (EW). Perhaps the earliest use of EW in war was in the Russo-Japanese war. On a number of occasions, Japanese naval commanders were able to exploit transmissions from Russian ships to identify their location, providing early warning of an attack and giving time for the preparation of defence.

As communications systems developed through World War 1, so did electronic warfare systems. Interception of enemy transmissions was carried out routinely by both sides, with direction finding sometimes used to identify the locations of emissions, from which the locations of headquarters and the enemy command structure could be inferred. Most importantly, the enemy commander’s intent could sometimes be deduced. Ever since this time, there has been an ongoing cycle of development of communications and EW technology, each attempting to stay ahead of the other.

In World War II, new systems employing the electromagnetic spectrum emerged that were not associated with communications, the most notable of which was radar. Needless to say, no sooner had these systems been deployed, than countermeasures appeared. Just as in the case of communications systems, there has been an ongoing cycle of competition ever since. In many ways, this competition is even fiercer for these non-communications applications than for communications.

The development of these non-communications systems led to a divergence in EW technology, systems and procedures into what are now known as communications EW and non-communications EW, based on whether its target is an adversary communications system or some other user of the electromagnetic spectrum. As discussed above, communications EW is almost as old as electronic communications itself. On the battlefield, it is mostly concerned with communications sources that transmit in frequency bands between HF and SHF. Intercept and analysis of transmissions is usually more important than measurement of transmitter characteristics. Non-communications EW has been developed since the early employment of radars in World War II and is primarily concerned with platform protection, and often specifically oriented towards radar systems in the UHF and higher bands. In non-communications EW, measurement of emitter characteristics is central as they are used to detect the presence of, and possibly identify, an equipment and/or its performance.

Traditionally, communications EW is practiced primarily in the land environment, with the aims of degrading or destroying an adversary’s ability to exercise command and control while enhancing the same capabilities for friendly forces. Non-communications EW, on the other hand, is practiced primarily in the sea and air environments, primarily to protect platforms against threats such as missiles by defeating their surveillance, target acquisition or guidance systems.

In both communications and non-communications EW, there is a fundamental division into three areas: electronic support, electronic attack and electronic protection. Electronic support is concerned with the gathering of information on sources of electromagnetic radiation. Electronic attack encompasses mechanisms to use electromagnetic radiation to degrade an adversary’s use of the electromagnetic spectrum, while electronic protection provides techniques that protect systems using the spectrum against the effects of electronic attack and electronic support.

This book covers both communications EW and non-communications EW. Because of the significant differences in the two areas, each is covered in its own part. Within each part, both target systems and EW are covered, following the basic three-way subdivision of EW into electronic support, electronic attack and electronic protection. The astute reader will identify common threads that resurface across multiple chapters, but often with different implications.

The first part of the book deals with communications EW. Chapter 1 describes the operational environment of the digitized battlefield and examines the process of command and control that is the core business of the tactical commander. The concept of network-centric warfare is discussed as an example of a doctrine that is emerging to harness the power of the information revolution for application to land warfare. This doctrine is then examined in the context of the heavy reliance that networked forms of warfare have on the use of the electromagnetic spectrum. The information revolution not only provides an improved ability to command and control, but also brings with it a commensurate ability to disrupt the process. The emerging doctrine of information warfare, information operations, and command and control warfare is then discussed to provide a framework within which to consider the role of electronic warfare on the digitized battlefield. A taxonomy is given for the doctrine of electronic warfare, comprising electronic support, electronic attack and electronic protection.

Chapter 2 discusses the targets of tactical communications electronic warfare—the communications systems that underpin the ability of a tactical commander to command and control. Tactical trunk communications, combat net radio, and tactical data distribution systems are described and an architecture is developed to illustrate the interrelationship of systems required to provide the battlefield networks that support operational concepts such as network-centric warfare.

Chapter 3 concentrates on electronic protection, which comprises those actions taken to protect friendly equipment from any effects of friendly or adversary use of the electromagnetic spectrum that degrades, neutralises, or destroys friendly combat capability. This is achieved through a combination of active (detectable) and passive (undetectable) means.

In Chapter 4 we describe electronic support, which is the component of electronic warfare that is focussed on the identification of sources of intentional and unintentional radiation of electromagnetic energy by an adversary. The elements of electronic support are search, intercept, direction finding, and analysis. Electronic support provides intelligence on adversary activity and deployment, as well as steerage for electronic attack.

Electronic attack is the focus of Chapter 5, which describes the issues associated with the use of electromagnetic energy to attack adversary equipment with the intent of degrading, neutralising, or destroying adversary combat capability. Electronic attack can take the form of jamming, electronic deception, or neutralisation.

Chapter 6 provides a description of the organisation of EW units and the planning processes required for the deployment of electronic warfare capabilities on the battlefield. Effective planning for EW is crucial to overcome the scarcity of EW resources, to maintain security, and to coordinate with other functional areas such as communications.

The second part of this book deals with non-communications EW. Chapter 7 builds on the framework given in Chapter 1 to introduce the threats, environments, and systems commonly seen in non-communications EW. Chapter 8 then introduces radar fundamentals used in Chapters 9 and 10. This is not intended as an introduction to radar, and the reader is directed to specialised texts to obtain a basic knowledge of radar.

Chapter 9 describes non-communications electronic support, including system performance measures, antennas, receivers, direction finding and support issues. Detection of radar emissions on the battlefield is a very useful situational awareness aid, and dramatically reduces the effectiveness of hostile weapon systems that use radar.

In Chapter 10 we address electronic attack against radars, including decoys and chaff, power calculations, and noise and deception jamming. Deception jamming is then addressed in more detail. Countermeasures to reduce the effectiveness of hostile radar systems are most prevalent on power projection platforms, such as ships, and strike and fighter aircraft. Chaff is the exception, and is more widely employed - primarily due to its low cost.

Countermeasures to infrared homing missiles are the subject of Chapter 11. We begin with an explanation of the target characteristics, and seeker technologies, and in this context address the protection technologies available, including flares, special material decoys, and infrared jamming. Infrared homing weapons are a major threat, especially to helicopters and other transport aircraft in low-intensity conflicts.

Warning systems to detect inbound missiles and laser energy are the focus of Chapter 12. Warning systems are essential to self-protection applications of non-communications EW; since many countermeasures are reactive, and automated warning systems provide the only reliable method of detecting threats in a timely fashion.

Table of contents

CONTENTS
	PART I—COMMUNICATIONS ELECTRONIC WARFARE
1	THE DIGITIZED BATTLESPACE	1
1.1	The Operational Environment	1
1.2	Command and Control	6
1.3	Information Warfare	10
1.4	Electronic Warfare	12
1.5	Summary	16
2	TACTICAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS	21
2.1	Introduction	21
2.2	Architectural Drivers	21
2.3	Current Tactical Communications Architecture	24
2.4	A Suitable Tactical Communications Architecture for Future Land Warfare	26
2.5	Combat Radio Subsystem	38
2.6	Tactical Data Distribution Subsystem	45
2.7	Tactical Airborne Subsystem	47
2.7	Potential Targets For Tactical Communications EW	51
2.8	Summary	52
3	COMMUNICATIONS ELECTRONIC PROTECTION	55
3.1	Introduction	55
3.2	Passive Electronic Protection	56
3.3	Active Electronic Protection	59
3.4	Use of EP Techniques in Communications Systems	86
4	COMMUNICATIONS ELECTRONIC SUPPORT	95
4.1	Introduction	95
4.2	Search	96
4.3	Intercept (Monitoring)	107
4.4	Direction Finding	114
4.5	Analysis	129
4.6	ES Platforms	132
5	COMMUNICATIONS ELECTRONIC ATTACK	137
5.1	Introduction	137
5.2	Jamming	138
5.3	Electronic Deception	153
5.4	Neutralisation	157
6	LAND EW COMMAND AND CONTROL	159
6.1	Introduction	159
6.2	EW Unit Organisation	160
6.3	The Tactical Planning Process	166
6.4	The EW Targeting Process	168
6.5	Collection Management	177
	PART II—NON-COMMUNICATIONS ELECTRONIC WARFARE
7	NON-COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS	181
7.1	Introduction	181
7.2	Threats on the Modern Battlefield	181
7.3	Typical NCEW Devices	181
7.4	Self-protection Layers	182
7.5	Platforms	184
8	RADAR OVERVIEW	187
8.1	Introduction	187
8.2	Pulsed Radar	187
8.3	Characteristics of Pulsed Radar	188
8.4	Moving Target Indication	191
8.5	Continuous Wave (CW) Radar	191
8.6	Pulse Doppler Radar	192
8.7	Contemporary Radar Features	194
8.8	Radar Resolution Cells	197
8.9	Radar Horizon	198
9	RADAR ELECTRONIC SUPPORT	201
9.1	Introduction	201
9.2	Operational Requirements and Roles	202
9.3	Non-communications Signals	204
9.4	ES System Performance Metrics	205
9.5	System Architecture	208
9.6	Antennas	209
9.7	Receivers	212
9.8	Angle of Arrival (AOA) Techniques	216
9.9	Signal Power Budgets	220
9.1	Signal Identification	222
9.11	Recording of ELINT	224
9.12	Operational Support Requirements	225
9.13	ES Against Low-Probability-Of-Intercept (LPI) Emitters	227
9.14	Specific Emitter Identification (SEI)	229
10	RADAR ELECTRONIC ATTACK	233
10.1	Electronic Attack Concepts	233
10.2	EA Methods	233
10.3	Expendables	234
10.4	Chaff	236
10.5	Chaff Dispensers	239
10.6	EA Deployment	243
10.7	EA Categories	248
10.8	Noise Jamming	248
10.9	Deceptive Jamming	250
10.1	Velocity Techniques	255
10.11	Deception Devices	258
10.12	Angle Techniques for Early Tracking Radars	260
10.13	Angle Deception Techniques for Monopulse Radar	262
10.14	EA Against SAR and ISAR	265
10.15	Anti-radar Missiles	266
10.16	Effect of Stealth on RF Electronic Attack	270
11	INFRARED COUNTERMEASURES (IRCM)	273
11.1	Introduction	273
11.2	Emissivity	273
11.3	Blackbody Radiation Calculations	274
11.4	Aircraft Targets	275
11.5	Ship Targets	277
11.6	Clutter	278
11.7	Seeker Detectors	279
11.8	IR Guided Missile Operation	281
11.9	Spin-Scan Reticles (Amplitude Modulation)	282
11.1	Conical Scan Reticles (Frequency Modulation)	283
11.11	Pulse Position Modulation	286
11.12	Imaging Systems	286
11.13	Flare Characteristics	287
11.14	Operational Considerations for Flares	289
11.15	Dispensing	291
11.16	Conventional (MTV) Flares	292
11.17	Countering Conventional Flares (IR EP)	294
11.18	Non-conventional Flares	296
11.19	Active IR EA—IR Jamming	296
11.2	Other EOCM	299
12	MISSILE AND LASER WARNING SYSTEMS	303
12.1	Introduction	303
12.2	MWS Key Performance Metrics	303
12.3	Missile Attributes and Detection Methods	304
12.4	MWS Types	305
12.5	MWS Installation	306
12.6	Laser Warning Systems	307
12.7	Laser Attributes in the Real World	308
12.8	Laser Warning System Requirements	309
12.9	LWS Operation and Construction	309
12.1	LWS Performance and Sensitivity	310
12.11	LWS Installation and Support Issues	310
12.12	Typical Countermeasures to Laser Weapons	311
	APPENDIX
A	DECIBELS	313
	INDEX	315

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